A P value reports the probability that the observed data-or any more extreme values-would occur by chance (the “null hypothesis”). The P value should be treated as a mere heuristic, interpreted as the degree of compatibility between the observed dataset and a given statistical model. While far from perfect, the P value offers a pragmatic metric to infer whether an observed difference is reproducible and substantial relative to the noise in the measurements ( Greenwald et al., 1996).
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